SS7 

: WASHINGTON 

GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY. 

HENRY  LANDES,  STATE  GEOLOGIST. 


V OLTJME  X.  <• 

ANNUAL  REPORT  FOR  1901. 

IN  SIX  PARTS. 


PART  I. 

CREATION  OF  A STATE  GEOLOGICAL  SURYEY. 

AND 

AN  OUTLINE  OF  THE  GEOLOGY  OF  WASHINGTON. 

BY 

HENRY  LANDES. 

geology 


OLYMPIA,  WASH.: 

GWIN  HICKS,  . . . STATE  PRINTER, 
1902. 


I 


M 


■4  Tc  \ 


& 


BOARD  OF  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY. 


Henry  McBride, . President. 

Governor  of  Washington. 

C.  W.  Maynard, Secretary. 

Treasurer  of  Washington. 

— r F.  P.  Graves, 

President  of  the  University  of  Washington. 

E.  A.  Bryan, — 

President  of  the  Washington  Agricultural  College  and  School  of  Science. 

STAFF  OF  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY. 

Henry  Landes, State  Geologist. 

Professor  of  Geology,  University  of  Washington. 

Solon  Shedd, Geologist. 

Professor  of  Geology,  Washington  Agricultural  College  and 
School  of  Science. 

W.  S.  Thyng, . Geologist. 

Professor  of  Mining  Engineering,  Washington  Agricultural 
College  and  School  of  Science. 

D.  A.  Lyon, Geologist. 

Late  Professor  of  Mining  Engineering  and  Metallurgy, 

University  of  Washington. 


238890 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016 


https://archive.org/details/creationofstateg1119land 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE. 

Preface vii 

Creation  of  a State  Geological  Survey 1 

Introduction  1 

The  Law  Establishing1  the  Survey 2 

Organization  of  the  Board  of  Geological  Survey 3 

Field  Work  of  1901 4 

Office  Work 6 

Expenses  of  the  Geological  Survey 7 

An  Outline  of  the  Geology  of  Washington 9 

Topography  9 

Olympic  Mountains 10 

Puget  Sound  Basin 11 

Cascade  Mountains 12 

Okanogan  Highlands 13 

Columbia  Plain 13 

Blue  Mountains 14 

Geological  Formations 15 

Metamorphic  Rocks 15 

Gneiss 16 

Schist 16 

Crystalline  Limestone 18 

Quartzite 19 

« Igneous  Rocks 19 

Granite  20 

Basalt 22 

Andesite 25 

Serpentine  25 

Sedimentary  Rocks 26 

Pre-Cretaceous  Period 27 

Cretaceous  Period 28 

Tertiary  Period 28 

Eocene  Epoch 29 

Miocene  Epoch 31 

Pliocene  Epoch 32 

Quaternary  Period 32 

Pleistocene  Epoch 32 

Index 35 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FACING  PAGE. 

Topographical  Map 9 

Geological  Map 15 

Yakima  Canyon 19 

Mount  St.  Helens 23 

Lake  of  the  Mountains,  near  Cascade  Pass,  Cascade  Mountains 27 


PREFACE. 


In  the  Creation  of  a State  Geological  Survey,  after  some 
mention  is  made  of  the  causes  leading  up  to  the  inauguration  of 
a Survey,  a copy  of  the  law  is  then  given.  This  law  is  modeled 
after  that  of  older  states  where  geological  surveys  have  been  in 
progress,  and  emphasizes  the  economic  rather  than  any  other 
side  of  geology.  Some  mention  is  also  made  of  the  organization 
of  the  Board  of 'Geological  Survey  and  the  selection  of  a survey 
staff  to  whom  the  actual  work  of  the  Survey  is  entrusted.  An 
account  of  the  field  work  of  the  first  season  is  included,  to- 
gether with  some  statements  concerning  the  office  work  of  the 
State  Geologist,  and  a word  in  regard  to  the  expenses  of  the 
Survey. 

In  An  Outline  of  the  Geology  of  Washington  a resume  is 
given  of  the  present  knowledge  of  the  geology  of  the  state.  It 
is  planned  to  afford  a sort  of  bird’s-eye  view  of  the  topography 
and  the  geological  formations,  in  order  that  the  detailed  work  of 
the  future  may  be  planned  with  intelligence.  It  will  require 
many  years  of  patient  work  before  the  geology  of  the  state  will 
be  known  in  detail,  and  at  the  present  time  our  knowledge  of 
the  subject  is  of  a very  general  nature.  It  is  thought  worth  the 
while  to  include  a map  upon  which  an  attempt  has  been  made  to 
outline  the  larger  geological  formations.  The  boundaries  of  the 
different  formations  have,  as  a rule,  been  accurately  determined 
only  in  a few  places,  and  between  these  points  the  lines  of  sepa- 
ration are  mainly  conjectural.  Nevertheless  it  is  believed  that 
the  geological  map  will  prove  of  help  to  all  those  whose  work 
brings  them  in  contact  with  the  state’s  geology. 


CREATION  OF  A STATE  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY. 


INTRODUCTION. 

In  her  gifts  to  the  State  of  Washington,  Nature  has  been 
exceedingly  generous.  She  has  endowed  the  young  common- 
wealth with  resources  many  and  varied,  and  already  our  citizens 
are  coming  to  a realization  of  the  material  wealth  which  sur- 
rounds them.  The  fertile  soil  with  which  a large  portion  of  the 
state  is  blessed  is  leading  to  a great  development  along  agricul- 
tural lines ; the  extensive  and  magnificent  forests  of  evergreens 
are  conducive  to  lumbering  and  manufacturing  on  a large  scale ; 
the  many  fine  harbors,  advantageously  located,  point  to  a large 
and  increasing  commerce ; the  waters  teeming  with  fish  hold 
within  their  depths  great  riches  ; while  the  large  mountainous 
area  in  which  useful  and  precious  metals  abound  contains  in 
itself  enough  to  make  Washington  a wealthy  state,  if  correct  and 
accurate  knowledge  of  its  mineral  resources  is  made  accessible 
to  the  public.  In  order  that  these  resources  lying  hidden  in  the 
earth  may  be  made  known  to  our  own  citizens,  and  to  any  others 
who  may  wish  to  take  a part  in  the  building  up  of  the  state,  it  is 
necessary  that  a careful  and  systematic  study  should  be  made  of 
our  economic  minerals.  Thus  it  came  about  that,  in  response  to 
a general  demand  of  those  interested  in  the  development  of  the 
mineral  resources  of  the  state,  the  Legislature  of  1901  passed  a 
law  providing  for  a Geological  Survey  of  Washington,  and  ap- 
propriated money  for  the  carrying  on  of  the  same.  Following 
the  plans  of  some  of  the  older  states  in  which  geological  surveys 
have  been  of  great  utility  and  benefit  it  was  provided  that  the 
work  of  the  survey  for  the  present  at  least  should  be  as  practical 
as  possible ; that  the  economic  minerals  should  be  studied  first 
of  all ; and  that  the  results  of  the  survey  work  should  be  em- 
bodied in  reports  and  bulletins  from  time  to  time  and  dissemi- 
nated among  the  people. 


2 Annual  Report  Washington  Geological  Survey. 


THE  LAW  ESTABLISHING  THE  SURVEY. 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Legislature  of  the  State  of  Washington  : 

Section  i.  There  is  hereby  established  a State  Geological 
Survey  of  the  State  of  Washington,  which  shall  be  under  the  di- 
rection of  the  Board  of  Geological  Survey  of  the  State  of  Wash- 
ington, which  is  hereby  established,  composed  of  the  Governor, 
the  Lieutenant  Governor,  the  State  Treasurer,  the  President  of 
the  University  of  Washington,  and  the  President  of  the  Wash- 
ington Agricultural  College  and  School  of  Science,  who  shall 
serve  without  compensation,  but  shall  be  reimbursed  for  actual 
expenses  incurred  in  the  performance  of  their  official  duties,  and 
the  said  board  shall  have  general  charge  of  the  survey,  and  shall 
appoint  as  superintendent  of  the  survey  a geologist  of  established 
reputation,  to  be  known  as  the  State  Geologist,  and  upon  his 
nomination  such  assistants  and  employes  as  the  said  board  may 
deem  necessary,  and  the  said  board  shall  also  determine  the 
compensation  of  all  persons  employed  by  the  survey,  and  may 
remove  them  at  will. 

Sec.  2.  The  said  survey  shall  have  for  its  object: 

(1)  An  examination  of  the  economic  products  of  the  state, 
viz.,  the  gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  and  iron  ores,  as  well  as  build- 
ing stones,  clays,  coal  and  all  mineral  substances  of  value. 

(2)  An  examination  and  classification  of  the  soils,  and  the 
study  of  their  adaptability  to  particular  crops. 

(3)  The  investigation  and  report  upon  water  supplies,  arte- 
sian wells,  the  water  power  of  the  state,  gauging  the  streams, 
etc.,  with  reference  to  their  application  for  irrigation  and  other 
purposes. 

(4)  An  examination  and  report  upon  the  occurrence  of  differ- 
ent road  building  material. 

(5)  An  examination  of  the  physical  features  of  the  state  with 
reference  to  their  practical  bearing  upon  the  occupations  of  the 
people. 

(6)  The  preparation  of  special  geological  and  economic  maps 
to  illustrate  the  resources  of  the  state. 

(7)  The  preparation  of  special  reports  with  necessary  illus- 
trations and  maps,  which  shall  embrace  both  the  general  and 
detailed  description  of  the  geology  and  natural  resources  of  the 
state. 


Creation  of  a State  Geological  Survey. 


3 


(8)  The  consideration  of  such  other  kindred  scientific  and 
economic  questions  as  in  the  judgment  of  the  board  shall  be 
deemed  of  value  to  the  people  of  the  state. 

Sec.  3.  The  board  shall  cause  to  be  prepared  a report  to  the 
Legislature  before  each  regular  meeting  of  the  same,  showing 
the  progress  and  condition  of  the  survey,  together  with  such 
other  information  as  they  may  deem  necessary  and  useful  or  as 
the  Legislature  may  require. 

Sec.  4.  The  regular  and  special  reports  of  the  survey,  with 
proper  illustrations  and  maps,  shall  be  printed  as  the  board  may 
direct,  and  the  reports  shall  be  distributed  or  sold  by  the  said 
board  as  the  interests  of  the  state  and  of  science  demand;  and 
all  money  obtained  by  the  sale  of  the  reports  shall  be  paid  into 
the  state  treasury. 

Sec.  5.  All  materials  collected,  after  having  served  the  pur- 
pose of  the  survey,  shall  be  distributed  by  the  board  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  Washington,  the  Washington  Agricultural  College 
and  School  of  Science,  the  normal  schools,  and  the  leading  high 
schools  of  the  state  in  such  a manner  as  to  be  of  the  greatest  ad- 
vantage to  the  educational  interests  of  the  state. 

Sec.  6.  The  Board  of  Geological  Survey  shall  meet  for  or- 
ganization within  thirty  days  after  the  passage  of  this  act.  The 
regular  meetings  of  the  board  shall  be  held  on  the  first  Wednes- 
day in  April  and  the  first  Wednesday  in  November  of  each  year. 

Sec.  7.  The  sum  of  five  thousand  dollars  ($5,000)  annually, 
or  so  much  thereof  as  may  be  necessary,  is  hereby  appropriated 
out  of  any  funds  out  of  the  treasury  not  otherwise  appropriated 
for  the  purpose  of  carrying  out  the  provisions  of  this  act. 

Sec.  8.  “An  act  to  create  a mining  bureau,  and  to  define 
its  powers  and  duties,  and  declaring  an  emergency,”  approved 
February  25,  1890  ; also  “An  act  to  create  the  office  of  a State 
Geologist,  prescribing  his  duties  and  compensation,  and  making 
an  appropriation  for  the  same,  and  declaring  an  emergency,’ ’ 
approved  February  28,  1890,  are  hereby  repealed. 

ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  BOARD  OF  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY. 

In  accordance  with  the  law,  and  at  the  call  of  the  Governor, 
the  following  gentlemen  : Governor  Rogers,  Lieutenant  Gov- 
ernor McBride,  State  Treasurer  Maynard,  President  Graves  of 
the  University  of  Washington,  and  President  Bryan  of  the 


4 


Annual  Report  Washington  Geological  Survey. 


Agricultural  College  and  School  of  Science,  met  upon  June  5, 
1901,  at  Tacoma,  and  organized  the  Board  of  Geological  Survey 
of  the  State  of  Washington.  Permanent  organization  was  ef- 
fected by  electing  Governor  Rogers  as  president  of  the  Board, 
and  State  Treasurer  Maynard  as  its  secretary. 

The  first  important  business  of  the  board  was  the  selection 
of  the  survey  staff.  Professor  Henry  Landes,  of  the  University 
of  Washington,  was  chosen  State  Geologist,  with  Professors 
Solon  Shedd  and  W.  S.  Thyng,  of  the  Agricultural  College  and 
School  of  Science,  and  D.  A.  Lyon  of  the  University  of  Wash- 
ington, as  geologists.  Charles  E.  Gaches,  George  W.  Evans, 
Louis  Pohle  and  Lewis  D.  Ryan  were  appointed  field  assist- 
ants for  the  season  of  1901. 

The  board  voted  that  members  of  the  survey  staff  should  re- 
ceive no  salaries  other  than  a small  per  diem  allowance  for  time 
actually  spent  in  the  field  work  of  the  survey.  The  president 
and  the  secretary  of  the  board  were  authorized  to  pass  upon 
the  accounts  of  the  State  Geologist  and  to  draw  upon  the  State 
Auditor  for  the  payment  of  the  bills  approved  by  them. 

FIELD  WORK  OF  1901. 

In  order  that  the  citizens  of  the  state  may  be  informed  as  to 
what  the  survey  attempted  to  do  in  its  first  field  season,  the  gen- 
eral scheme  of  the  summer’s  work  is  here  set  forth  and  some- 
what elaborated.  It  was  thought  advisable  to  do  first  of  all 
such  field  work  as  would  be  required  in  order  to  prepare  a 
general  statement  of  the  mineral  resources  of  the  state. 
With  this  end  in  view,  the  major  part  of  the  season  was  spent 
in  reconnaissance  work,  studying  the  geological  formations,  ex- 
aming  the  mines  of  gold,  silver  and  copper,  making  maps  and 
sections  of  the  coal  fields,  examining  with  care  the  building  and 
ornamental  stones,  and  collecting  other  data  for  the  first  report, 
which  should  be  devoted  chiefly  to  a description  of  the  state’s 
mineral  resources.  It  was  also  planned  to  gather  such  data  during 
the  first  season  as  would  be  needed  in  the  preparation  of 
some  special  bulletins  on  the  coal  fields,  building  and  orna- 
mental stones,  clay  materials,  and  on  one  or  two  of  the  most 
prominent  mining  districts  of  the  state.  In  order  to  carry  on 
the  plans  outlined  above,  three  parties  were  placed  in  the  field. 
These  were  equipped  so  that  they  might  move  with  as  great 


Creation  of  a State  Geological  Survey. 


5 


rapidity  as  possible  and  thus  be  able  to  cover  a large  part  of  the 
state  in  the  time  at  their  disposal.  Necessarily  the  work  was  of 
a reconnaissance  order,  and  only  a little  attention  could  be  given 
to  details.  The  personnel  and  scope  of  work  of  the  three  par- 
ties will  now  be  mentioned. 

The  first  party  was  composed  of  the  State  Geologist,  D.  A. 
Lyon,  C.  E.  Gilman,  Lewis  Ryan,  Charles  Landes  and  J.  W.  P. 
Dunlap.  About  July  ist,  after  having  provided  themselves  with 
the  necessary  horses  and  camp  equipment,  they  began  work  at 
Republic.  Here  they  remained  about  ten  days,  studying  the 
mining  geology  of  the  district.  The  party  then  proceeded  north 
to  Curlew,  visiting  several  properties  on  the  way.  The  next 
move  was  to  the  Myers  creek  district  and  thence  to  Oroville  and 
Loomis.  At  the  latter  place  some  time  was  spent  visiting  and 
studying  the  best  developed  mines  in  the  Palmer  mountain  dis- 
trict. From  this  point  the  party  proceeded  to  the  Methow  by 
way  of  Conconully.  From  the  Methow  they  moved  up  the 
Twisp  river,  over  Twisp  pass  to  Bridge  creek,  and  down  the 
Stehekin  to  the  head  of  Lake  Chelan.  From  this  point  the 
mines  on  Railroad  creek  were  visited.  From  Lake  Chelan  the 
party  passed  to  the  Horseshoe  basin,  thence  over  Cascade  pass 
and  down  the  Skagit  to  Marblemount.  Barron  was  next  visited 
and  an  examination  was  made  of  the  mines  on  Slate  and  Thun- 
der creeks  and  thereabouts.  Returning  down  the  Skagit  to 
Hamilton,  some  time  was  spent  in  studying  the  coal  field  of  that 
region.  The  boundaries  of  this  field  were  approximately  deter- 
mined, as  were  those  of  the  Cokedale  field  as  well.  Blue  Canyon 
was  next  visited,  and  here  some  time  was  spent  in  determining 
the  boundaries  of  that  large  coal  field,  and  in  studying  the  out- 
crops of  coal  which  occur  at  several  places  northward  and  east- 
ward of  Lake  Whatcom.  While  the  party  were  camped  at 
Keese  a detachment  under  the  leadership  of  D.  A.  Lyon  visited 
the  principal  mines  of  the  Mount  Baker  district.  The  last  move 
of  the  party  was  to  LaConner  where  the  horses  were  to  winter, 
and  here  the  work  of  the  party  closed  for  the  season. 

The  second  party,  consisting  of  Professor  Solon  Shedd  as  ge- 
ologist and  George  Evans  and  Louis  Pohle  as  field  assistants, 
spent  the  season  mainly  in  an  examination  of  the  building  and 
ornamental  stones  of  the  state,  paying  some  attention  to  the 
clay  materials  as  well.  They  began  work  at  Spokane  in  the  last 


6 


Annual  Report  Washington  Geological  Survey. 


days  of  June  by  making  an  examination  of  the  granite  quarries 
about  Spokane  and  Medical  Lake.  Then  came  an  investigation 
of  the  marble  and  serpentine  which  is  found  at  Valley  station 
and  elsewhere  in  Stevens  county.  Finishing  their  work  here, 
they  then  moved  to  Western  Washington,  where  the  remainder 
of  the  summer  was  spent  in  a study  of  the  building  stones  and 
clays  of  that  region.  Tenino,  Wilkinson,  Index,  Chuckanut  and 
Sucia  Island  were  visited,  as  well  as  many  other  places  where 
stone  of  desirable  character  for  building  purposes  was  known  to 
exist. 

Professor  W.  S.  Thyng,  who  made  studies  upon  several  min- 
ing districts  during  the  summer,  began  his  work  upon  the  mines 
in  the  districts  about  Silverton,  Monte  Cristo,  Goat  lake,  Silver 
creek  and  Index.  From  Index  he  went  to  the  Carbon  river  dis- 
trict to  examine  the  copper  mines  located  there.  He  finished 
his  work  by  an  examination  of  the  Cedar  canyon  district  in 
Stevens  county. 

OFFICE  WORK. 

It  is  a fact  acknowledged  by  every  one  who  has  had  any  ex- 
perience in  the  matter  that  the  hardest  and  most  exacting  work 
of  a Geological  Survey  is  that  of  the  office.  It  is  here  that  the 
field  notes  must  be  most  carefully  elaborated,  the  minerals  and 
rocks  collected  during  the  summer  must  be  identified  and  de- 
scribed, and  numerous  analyses  made  of  the  same;  maps  and 
sections  must  be  prepared  for  illustrating  the  subject  matter  of 
the  bulletins  and  reports;  and  great  care  must  be  exercised  in 
every  direction  in  order  that  the  reports  may  be  complete  and 
accurate  in  every  respect. 

Since  the  inauguration  of  the  survey,  a considerable  portion 
of  the  time  of  the  State  Geologist  has  been  taken  in  making  re- 
plies to  inquiries  from  our  own  citizens  and  from  many  outside 
the  state,  who  desire  information  concerning  our  mineral  resour- 
ces. It  is  of  course  necessary  that  these  replies  be  carefully 
prepared,  so  that  the  demands  of  our  citizens  and  of  outside  cap- 
italists may  be  fully  met.  While  the  correspondence  has  already 
reached  large  proportions,  it  will  doubtless  reach  a greater  vol- 
ume when  the  fact  that  Washington  has  a Geological  Survey 
becomes  better  known. 

One  important  part  of  the  work  of  the  Geological  Survey  is 
the  identification  of  minerals  and  rocks  sent  in  by  prospectors 


Creation  of  a State  Geological  Survey . 


7 


and  mining  men.  Such  specimens  will  be  examined  and 
promptly  reported  upon  if  the  following  rules  are  observed:  ist. 
A specimen  should  weigh  not  less  than  one-half  pound  and 
should  be  taken  from  as  great  a depth  as  possible.  2d.  Each 
specimen  must  be  accompanied  by  a statement  of  the  exact  loca- 
tion where  it  is  found,  and  a description  of  the  mass  as  a whole  from 
which  it  came.  3d.  The  specimen  must  be  sent  prepaid,  with 
the  name  of  the  sender  plainly  written  upon  the  package,  and 
addressed  to  the  State  Geologist,  University  Station,  Seattle, 
Washington. 

It  must  be  patent  to  every  citizen  that  no  assays  or  chemical 
analyses  can  be  expected  from  the  office  of  the  State  Geologist. 
In  the  first  place  no  provision  is  made  for  any  such  work  in  the 
law  creating  the  Geological  Survey.  In  the  second  place  the 
sampling  or  selection  of  ores  for  assays  or  analyses  is  of  the 
greatest  importance,  and  usually  an  average  sample  is  not  taken, 
so  that  the  assay  or  analysis  indicates  very  little  as  to  the  real 
value  of  the  mineral  deposit.  In  the  third  place  the  cost  of 
making  such  assays  or  analyses  by  the  survey  would  be  so  very 
great  that  its  resources  would  be  largely  consumed  in  this  work 
alone,  and  the  sender  only  would  be  benefited  and  not  the  state. 

EXPENSES  OF  THE  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY, 

The  amount  appropriated  by  the  Legislature  of  1901  for  the 
carrying  on  of  the  work  of  the  Geological  Survey  was  five  thou- 
sand dollars  per  annum.  For  all  moneys  paid  out  in  the  prose- 
cution of  the  work  of  the  survey  vouchers  are  taken  in  duplicate. 
These  vouchers  pass  through  the  hands  of  a committee  of  the 
Board  of  Geological  Survey,  and  upon  their  approval  one  set 
passes  to  the  State  Auditor,  while  the  duplicate  set  is  retained 
by  the  board.  The  appropriation  above  mentioned  must  pro- 
vide for  the  entire  expenses  of  the  survey,  not  only  for  the  field 
work  but  for  the  printing  of  all  reports  and  the  mailing  of  the 
same. 

The  cost  of  doing  field  work  in  Washington  is  probably  fully 
as  great,  if  not  greater,  than  that  of  any  other  state  in  the  Union, 
because  of  the  extreme  ruggedness  of  large  parts  of  the  state 
and  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  transportation.  It  is,  therefore, 
only  by  practicing  the  most  rigid  economy  and  by  getting  a 
large  amount  of  work  done  without  any  attendant  compensation 
that  it  is  possible  to  attain  even  moderate  results. 


Annual  Report,  1901.  Plate  I. 


RELIEF  MAP  OF  WASHINGTON.  BY  SOLON  SHEEP 


AN  OUTLINE  OF  THE  GEOLOGY  OF 
WASHINGTON. 


The  following  brief  account  of  the  geology  of  Washington 
must  be  regarded  as  general  and  at  the  same  time  provisional. 
It  is  thought  desirable  at  this  time  to  make  some  preliminary 
statements  concerning  the  state  as  a whole,  in  order  to  pave  the 
way  for  the  detailed  work  of  the  future.  Up  to  the  present  time 
it  is  only  at  a few  points,  often  widely  separated,  that  the  geol- 
ogy of  the  state  has  been  studied  with  thoroughness  and  with  an 
attention  to  details.  Not  until  all  parts  of  the  state  have  become 
readily  accessible,  and  especially  not  until  complete  topographic 
maps  have  been  made,  will  it  be  possible  to  carry  on  all  of  the 
investigations  necessary  to  formulate  a complete  and  detailed 
account  of  Washington  geology. 

The  most  important  work  on  the  geology  of  Washington  has 
been  done  by  the  United  States  Geological  Survey,  mainly  by 
Messrs.  Bailey  Willis,  I.  C.  Russell,  and  George  Otis  Smith. 
In  the  Bibliography  of  Washington  Geology,  comprising  part  6 
of  this  volume,  will  be  found  a list  of  the  contributions  to  the 
geology  of  the  state  that  have  been  made  by  the  above  mentioned 
geologists  and  others.  In  the  preparation  of  this  article  all 
printed  reports  on  the  geology  of  Washington  that  were  accessible 
have  been  freely  drawn  upon,  and  an  attempt  has  been  made  to 
give  full  credit  in  every  case.  The  writer  has  been  engaged  for 
several  seasons  in  geological  field  work  in  varibus  parts  of  Wash- 
ington, and  much  of  the  result  of  his  work  on  the  general  geol- 
ogy of  the  state  is  embodied  herein. 


TOPOGRAPHY. 


Before  an  intelligent  discussion  of  the  geology  of  Washington 
can  be  had,  it  is  necessary  that  some  statements  concerning  the 
topographic  features  of  the  state  should  be  made.  In  time  to 

(9) 


I 0 Annual  Report  Washington  Geological  Survey. 

come,  when  the  geology  is  better  known  than  it  is  now,  the  topo- 
graphic features  as  a result  will  be  much  better  understood ; and 
consequently,  when  topographic  maps  shall  have  been  made  of 
the  entire  state,  the  details  of  its  geology  will  be  made  out  with 
much  greater  ease  than  is  possible  at  the  present  time. 

A visitor  to  Washington  cannot  but  be  immediately  impressed 
by  the  very  great  diversity  of  physical  features  which  the  state 
possesses.  From  the  low  plains  which  are  found  along  the  3,000 
miles  or  more  of  coast  line  it  is  possible  within  a short  space  of 
time  to  ascend  to  heights  on  which  the  snow  remains  throughout 
the  year.  The  far  reaching  influence  of  such  great  differences  in 
the  topography  of  the  state  are  readily  observable.  Not  only  is 
a varied  scenery  produced,  but  of  necessity  there  follows  a great 
variation  in  the  climate,  rainfall,  soil,  vegetation,  and  occupa- 
tions of  the  people  in  the  different  topographic  provinces  of  the 
state. 

A study  of  the  relief  map  which  accompanies  this  report  will 
make  it  clear  that  the  physical  features  of  the  state  may  be  di- 
vided into  six  provinces.  Passing  from  the  Pacific  ocean  inland 
these  divisions  are  : Olympic  Mountains,  Puget  Sound  Basin, 

Cascade  Mountains,  Okanogan  Highlands,  Columbia  Plain,  and 
Blue  Mountains.  It  must  be  understood,  of  course,  that  no  hard 
and  fast  lines  separate  these  provinces.  The  border  line  is 
always  arbitrary  and  difficult  of  exact  location.  Another  fact  to 
be  noted  is  that  without  exception  these  provinces  extend  beyond 
the  boundaries  of  the  state,  overlapping  into  the  adjoining  states. 
The  provinces  already  noted  are  capable  of  subdivision  into 
smaller  and  yet  smaller  areas  which  can  receive  but  scant  atten- 
tion in  these  pages. 

OLYMPIC  MOUNTAINS. 

These  mountains  should  be  regarded  as  merely  a segment  of 
the  general  coastal  range  which  extends  northward  and  south- 
ward beyond  the  confines  of  the  state.  They  reach  their  great- 
est development  in  Washington  in  the  triangular  shaped  area 
bordered  by  the  ocean,  the  Straits  of  Fuca  and  the  arms  of 
Puget  sound.  Their  highest  peak  is  Olympus,  which  has  an 
elevation  of  about  8,000  feet,  and  is  the  first  point  of  land  to  be 
recognized  by  navigators  when  approaching  the  coast  of  Wash- 
ington from  the  westward.  The  Olympics  when  seen  from  any 
point  of  view  exhibit  a labyrinth  of  serrated  ridges  and  sharp 


11 


An  Outline  of  the  Geology  of  Washington. 

peaks.  Standing  as  they  do  in  the  path  of  the  moist  westerly 
winds,  and  rising  to  a considerable  height  above  the  sea,  these 
mountains  are  visited  by  an  excessive  precipitation. 

The  Olympics  have  been  but  little  explored  and  reliable  in- 
formation concerning  them  is  very  meager.  It  is  known,  how- 
ever, that  they  are  well  nigh  impassable  because  of  their 
extremely  broken  and  dissected  character.  The  divides  are  ex- 
ceedingly sharp  and  difficult  to  follow.  The  rivers  flow  in  deep 
canyons  with  walls  which  in  many  instances  can  not  be  scaled. 
On  the  whole  the  streams  of  these  mountains  seem  to  be  ap- 
proaching the  stage  of  maturity  in  their  development. 

The  southern  extension  of  the  Olympics  consists  merely  of 
hills  or  ridges  rising  as  a rule  not  more  than  1,500  feet  above  the 
sea.  In  fact  so  inconspicuous  are  they  in  the  topography  of  the 
southwestern  part  of  the  state  that  the  term  mountains  is  not 
usually  applied  to  them.  They  have  been  cut  in  two  by  the 
Chehalis  and  Columbia  rivers. 

PUGET  SOUND  BASIN. 

The  Puget  Sound  basin  lies  between  the  Olympic  and  Cas- 
cade mountains,  its  longer  axis  having  a north  and  south  direc- 
tion. It  has  the  form  of  a broad  trough,  its  large  central  area 
being  less  than  100  feet  above  sea  level,  while  its  eastern  and 
western  sides  rise  gradually  until  they  coalesce  with  the  moun- 
tains. 

The  basin  for  the  most  part  has  a foundation  of  sedimentary 
rocks  which  have  been  thrown  into  folds.  The  inequalities  pro- 
duced by  the  folding  of  the  strata  have  been  largely  reduced  by 
erosion,  so  that  the  basin  at  the  present  time  is  a plain  of  low 
relief. 

A late  episode  in  the  history  of  the  basin  was  a subsidence 
of  sufficient  extent  to  cause  the  wide  valleys  of  the  northern 
portion  to  sink  below  sea  level,  whereby  the  rivers  became 
“ drowned”  and  Puget  sound  was  produced.  A still  later  epi- 
sode was  the  advent  of  great  glaciers  from  the  mountains  to  the 
northward,  eastward,  and  westward,  whereby  the  northern  part 
of  the  basin  was  overwhelmed  and  its  rock  foundation  almost 
wholly  hidden  by  a mantle  of  glacial  sediments  varying  in  thick- 
ness from  500  to  1,000  feet.  The  glacial  sediments  consist  for 
the  most  part  of  plains  of  till,  with  local  deposits  of  stratified 
clay,  sand  and  gravel.  About  the  southern  end  of  Puget  sound 


12  Annual  Report  Washington  Geological  Survey. 


there  are  many  level,  barren  plains  of  coarse  sand  and  gravel, 
which  were  formed  by  the  great  streams  of  water  which  the 
melting  glaciers  produced.  The  southern  part  of  the  basin  has 
a somewhat  more  hilly  or  broken  character  than  the  northern 
part,  because  of  an  absence  of  plains  of  glacial  materials. 

CASCADE  MOUNTAINS. 

On  the  southern  border  of  Washington  where  the  Cascade 
mountains  enter  the  state  they  have  a breadth  of  about  fifty 
miles,  which  increases  to  ioo  miles  at  the  British  Columbia  line. 
The  general  height  of  the  mountains  is  about  8,000  feet  above 
the  sea,  although  there  are  some  peaks,  usually  old  volcanoes, 
which  rise  to  much  greater  heights.  Only  one  of  the  volcanoes 
that  are  well  known  stands  on  the  axis  of  the  range,  viz.,  Glacier 
Peak.  The  remaining  volcanoes,  Baker,  Rainier,  and  St. 
Helens,  stand  on  the  western  flank  of  the  mountains,  and 
Adams  on  the  eastern  side. 

The  northern  half  of  the  Cascades  in  Washington  differs 
much  in  character  from  the  southern  half.  In  the  southern  por- 
tion igneous  activity  has  been  very  great  and  much  of  the  topog- 
raphy is  due  to  the  presence  of  volcanoes  with  their  attendant 
lava  flows.  In  the  northern  Cascades  there  is  such  a marked 
uniformity  in  the  heights  of  the  loftier  peaks  and  ridges  as  to 
suggest  very  strongly  that  they  are  the  remnants  of  a plateau. 
In  other  words,  the  northern  Cascades  have  seemingly  been 
carved  out  of  a great  plateau  which  was  the  result  of  the  uplift- 
ing of  a peneplain.  The  ruggedness  of  the  topography,  there- 
fore, is  not  due  primarily  to  the  folding  of  the  rocks,  but  to 
erosion.  The  streams  have  been,  and  are  yet,  large  and  well 
fed,  so  that  the  old  plateau  is  now  well  dissected  and  transformed 
into  mountains  of  extreme  ruggedness.  The  main  streams 
which  flow  out  from  the  Cascades  all  have  valleys  noted  for 
their  depths,  so  that  the  flanking  mountains  stand  alongside  in 
great  boldness.  In  ascending  the  principal  mountain  valleys, 
especially  those  on  the  western  side  of  the  Cascades,  one  notices 
that  the  grade  is  gentle,  even  into  the  heart  of  the  mountains, 
and  the  ascent  is  nearly  all  made  in  the  last  few  miles  before  the 
summit  is  attained. 

Very  many  glaciers,  some  of  large  size,  occur  in  the  higher 
portions  of  the  Cascade  mountains.  They  once  filled  the  larger 


An  Outline  of  the  Geology  of  Washington.  13 

mountain  valleys  and  eroded  and  modified  these  very  materially. 
Amphitheatres  or  cirques  are  found  at  the  heads  of  many  streams, 
and  as  these  basins  usually  contain  small  lakes  and  parks,  they 
afford  some  of  the  most  beautiful  scenery  that  the  mountains 
possess. 

OKANOGAN  HIGHLANDS. 

The  Okanogan  highlands  occupy  that  portion  of  the  state 
lying  north  of  the  Columbia  and  Spokane  rivers  and  east  of  the 
Cascades.  On  their  western  border  they  merge  insensibly  into 
the  latter  mountains,  and  on  the  east  they  join  the  mountains  of 
Idaho.  In  their  geological  characteristics  they  closely  resemble 
the  northern  Cascades,  but  in  their  topographical  aspects  they 
are  quite  different.  Instead  of  ruggedness  they  are  character- 
ized largely  by  beautiful  rolling  surfaces,  with  long  gentle  slopes 
leading  down  from  the  watersheds  to  the  wide  stream  basins. 
The  hills  are  low  and  broad  and  of  a slope  so  slight  that  they 
are  covered  with  a deep  soil.  The  divides  between  the  larger 
streams,  although  they  reach  heights  of  5,000  or  6,000  feet  above 
the  sea,  are  gently  rounding  and  not  sharp  or  abrupt.  The 
larger  valleys  were  filled  with  glaciers  at  one  time,  and  charac- 
teristic terraces  or  moraines  are  now  found  along  the  valley 
sides.  Throughout  the  Okanogan  highlands  there  is  a close 
and  easily  observed  relationship  between  the  vegetation  and  the 
amount  of  rainfall.  On  the  higher  hills  and  ridges  where  the 
rainfall  is  greatest  forests  grow  everywhere.  On  the  lower  hills 
and  in  the  higher  valleys  the  rainfall  will  not  support  a forest 
growth,  but  bunch  grass  grows  luxuriantly.  In  the  lower  valleys 
of  the  larger  streams,  where  the  rainfall  is  least,  bunch  grass  dis- 
appears and  sage  brush  takes  its  place.  The  forests  have  -an 
open  character  with  practically  no  underbrush,  the  number  of 
streams  is  large  and  the  water  excellent,  so  that  the  highlands 
have  a remarkable  park-like  character. 

COLUMBIA  PLAIN. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Blue  mountains,  described  below, 
virtually  all  of  that  part  of  the  state  south  of  the  Okanogan 
highlands  and  east  of  the  Cascade  mountains  is  embraced  in  the 
Columbia  plain.  From  the  Columbia  river  at  a height  of  500  or 
600  feet  above  the  sea,  the  plain  rises  rather  rapidly  to  the 
westward  until  it  merges  into  the  piedmont  plateau  which  bor- 


14  Annual  Report  Washington  Geological  Survey. 


ders  the  Cascades.  To  the  eastward  the  plain  rises  slowly  and 
does  not  reach  an  altitude  of  2,000  feet  until  near  the  Idaho 
line.  The  area  under  discussion  is  really  composed  of  a num- 
ber of  plains  and  plateaus  which  can  not  be  differentiated  with 
accuracy  at  this  time. 

While  the  Columbia  plain  as  a whole  is  quite  level  and  mo- 
notonous, there  are  some  local  irregularities  which  tend  to  give 
the  plain  a diversified  appearance.  In  the  region  about  North 
Yakima  there  are  a number  of  sharp  east  and  west  ridges  of  a 
semi-mountainous  character,  which  represent  anticlines  or  arches 
in  the  sheets  of  lava.  These  ridges  have  occasionally  risen 
athwart  the  stream  courses,  and  some  rivers,  such  as  the  Yak- 
ima, have  cut  deep  gaps  across  them.  In  some  parts  of  the 
plain,  notably  within  the  great  bend  of  the  Columbia  river,  the 
country  is  much  cut  up  by  old  river  courses,  now  wholly  aban- 
doned by  streams,  and  known  locally  as  coulees.  Of  these, 
Moses  and  Grand  coulees  are  good  types.  The  coulees  are 
often  500  or  600  feet  in  depth,  with  precipitous  walls,  and  rep- 
resent the  courses  of  streams  which  have  now  sought  other 
channels,  or  which  have  withered  away  because  of  a decrease  in 
the  amount  of  rainfall.  Each  coulee  now  has  within  it  usually 
a chain  of  small  alkali  lakes. 

In  the  region  drained  by  the  Snake  river  and  its  tributaries 
deep  canyons  have  been  cut  in  the  plain.  From  the  Snake  river 
northward  toward  Spokane,  in  what  is  known  as  the  Palouse 
country,  the  plain  (or  more  properly  called  here  a plateau)  is 
covered  with  hills  having  altitudes  of  from  400  to  600  feet,  which 
possess  the  character  of  sand  dunes.  They  are  hills  of  seolian 
origin,  made  up  of  deposits  of  fine  soil  which  was  carried  to  its 
present  position  by  the  prevailing  winds  of  the  southwest. 
These  wind-blown  hills  have  long,  gentle  southwesterly  slopes, 
with  northeasterly  ones  that  are  somewhat  abrupt.  They  must 
have  been  formed  at  a time  when  there  was  less  precipitation 
than  now  and  when  the  surface  of  the  country  had  no  vegeta- 
tion upon  it.  Since  the  time  when  the  hills  were  fashioned  out 
of  the  wind-blown  soil  the  streams  have  accomplished  consider- 
able erosion,  and  now  have  their  drainage  lines  well  established. 

BLUE  MOUNTAINS. 

These  mountains,  situated  on  the  border  line  between  Wash- 
ington and  Oregon,  represent  merely  a local  uplift  of  promi- 


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A PRELIMINARY  GEOLOGICAL  MAP  OF  WASHINGTON. 


An  Outline  of  the  Geology  of  Washington.  15 

nence  in  the  great  lava  plain.  A broad,  dome-shaped  area  of 
lava  was  elevated  here,  rising  about  7,000  feet  above  the  sea. 
and  about  5,000  feet  above  the  surrounding  plain.  While  the 
streams  have  cut  deep  canyons  in  the  mountains,  as  a whole 
they  still  retain  their  even-topped  appearance.  The  mountains 
are  high  enough  to  have  sufficient  precipitation  to  support  a 
moderate  forest  growth,  and  in  this  way  they  afford  a contrast 
to  the  surrounding  prairies. 


GEOLOGICAL  FORMATIONS* 


MET  AMORPHIC  ROCKS. 

Metamorphic  rocks  are  those  which  have  been  acted  upon  by 
heat  and  pressure  for  the  most  part  and  as  a result  they  have 
undergone  certain  changes  from  their  original  conditions.  These 
changes  are  so  great  that  the  rocks  are  greatly  altered  in  their 
structure,  mineral  composition,  and  physical  aspects.  Some 
common  examples  of  metamorphism  are  the  changes  of  ordi- 
nary limestone  into  marble,  sandstone  into  quartzite,  and  clay- 
rock  into  slate. 

It  is  generally  believed  that  the  metamorphic  rocks  are  the 
oldest  as  far  as  known  in  Washington,  while  at  the  same  time 
all  efforts  to  determine  their  geological  age  have  so  far  been  un- 
successful. From  their  marked  physical  resemblance  to  Archaean 
rocks  found  in  other  parts  of  the  United  States  some  have 
been  inclined  to  designate  the  metamorphic  rocks  of  Washing- 
ton as  Archaean,  but  this  cannot  be  done  with  assurance  until 
further  evidence  is  obtained.  In  many  places  it  has  been  ob- 
served that  the  metamorphic  rocks  have  sedimentaries  lying 
unconformably  upon  them,  and  in  fact  it  has  been  largely  from 
the  erosion  of  the  former  that  the  latter  have  been  made. 

It  is  known  that  metamorphic  rocks  occupy  a large  portion 
of  the  state,  being  very  frequently  met  with  throughout  the  Cas- 
cades, from  Stampede  pass  northward  to  the  British  Columbia 
boundary,  and  from  near  Puget  Sound  eastward  across  the 
Cascade  mountains  and  Okanogan  highlands  to  the  Idaho  line. 
The  ordinary  varieties  of  metamorphic  rocks  in  Washington  are 
gneiss,  schist,  marble,  slate,  and  quartzite.  The  most  import- 
ant of  these  are  described  below. 


16  Annual  Report  Washington  Geological  Survey. 


Gneiss, 

Gneiss  is  a rock  composed  essentially  of  the  same  minerals 
as  granite,  and  as  a consequence  is  often  mistaken  for  the  latter. 
While  a hand  specimen  of  gneiss  usually  resembles  closely  a 
hand  specimen  of  granite,  in  a ledge  of  gneiss  a banded  or  strat- 
ified appearance  is  always  displayed.  Gneiss  in  general  is  a 
good  building  stone,  and  in  Washington  it  oftentimes  has  within 
it  mineral  veins  of  economic  importance. 

The  gneiss  of  Washington  is  generally  associated  with  gran- 
ite and  schist,  usually  lying  above  the  former  and  below  the 
latter.  The  most  important  areas  of  gneiss  observed  by  the 
writer  are  the  following:  A wide  belt,  having  a north  and  south 
course,  which  is  crossed  by  the  road  from  Myers  Falls  to  Re- 
public; along  the  Kettle  river,  between  Curlew  and  Midway, 
where  many  veins  of  pegmatite  occur  in  the  gneiss;  along  the 
Okanogan  river  between  Johnson  creek  and  Oroville;  at  several 
points  along  the  Methow  river,  between  its  mouth  and  the  Twisp 
river,  notably  near  the  mouth  of  Gold  creek;  along  Bridge 
creek  and  the  Stehekin  river,  from  Twisp  pass  to  Lake  Chelan; 
and  on  the  Columbia  river  between  Chelan  Falls  and  Wenatche. 

Schist. 

Schists  are  metamorphic  rocks,  possessing  a cleavage  which 
causes  them  to  break  into  thin  laminae  or  folia.  The  parting 
along  the  cleavage  planes  is  almost  always  wavy,  although  occa- 
sionally it  is  smooth.  When  derived  from  a sedimentary  rock 
the  cleavage  of  schist  is  at  right  angles  to  the  original  stratifica- 
tion, although  all  semblance  of  the  latter  has  usually  been  wholly 
destroyed  by  metamorphism.  Schists  are  recognized  by  their 
cleavage  habit  and  by  the  greasy  feel  which  they  usually  possess. 

Schists  are  of  various  kinds  and  are  usually  classified  accord- 
ing to  the  prominent  minerals  found  within  them.  Mica  is 
usually  the  most  abundant  mineral  and  mica  schists  are  there- 
fore of  the  most  frequent  occurrence.  Chlorite,  hornblende, 
and  staurolite,  with  some  others,  also  occur  occasionally  and 
give  rise  to  chlorite  schist,  hornblende  schist,  etc.,  etc. 

Russell*  mentions  a number  of  localities  herein  given  where 
schists  occur.  A great  escarpment  occurs  on  the  south  side  of 
Yakima  valley  two  miles  southwest  of  Clealum.  The  schists 


♦Russell:  20th  Ann.  Rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  Part  II,  pp.  102-3-4,  1900. 


An  Outline  of  the  Geology  of  Washington, 


17 


may  be  traced  westward  from  this  point  for  ten  or  twelve  miles, 
with  an  increasing  thickness  exposed.  Similar  schistose  rocks 
outcrop  about  the  base  of  the  Wenatche  mountains,  at  various 
localities  at  the  head  of  the  Teanaway  and  on  Nigger  creek,  and 
thence  northward  to  beyond  Leavenworth  on  the  Great  North- 
ern Railway. 

The  mountains  west  of  the  Columbia  and  on  the  north  side 
of  the  Wenatche  valley,  known  as  the  Entiat  range,  are  com- 
posed largely  of  mica  and  hornblende  schist.  Here  the  schist  is 
cut  by  dikes  of  basalt  and  acid  dikes  as  well  and  in  some  places 
quartz  veins  are  found  containing  free  gold.  Another  exposure 
of  schist,  thought  by  Russell  to  be  a continuation  of  the  last 
mentioned  area,  occurs  in  the  mountains  to  the  northward  of 
Lake  Wenatche  between  Chiwahwah  and  White  creeks.  Horn- 
blende schist  also  occurs  in  the  vicinity  of  Dirty  Run  peak,  near 
the  western  end  of  Lake  Wenatche,  and  along  the  crest  of  the 
ridge  which  extends  northwest  from  it  for  about  ten  miles.  This 
same  rock  forms  the  south  wall  of  the  valley  of  the  west  fork  of 
White  creek,  and  extends  to  the  main  Cascade  divide  near  Gla- 
cier peak.  The  valley  of  Indian  creek  is  almost  surrounded  by 
schists,  which  also  crown  Indian  pass  and  cover  most  of  the 
country  from  the  region  along  the  Sauk  river  to  the  mouth  of 
Whitechuck  creek.  Schist  is  found  in  the  region  around  Cas- 
cade pass  and  along  Cascade  creek  for  nearly  its  entire  length. 
The  most  northern  area  of  schist  recorded  by  Russell  occurs  on 
the  Skagit,  extending  from  the  mouth  of  Skaadle  to  beyond  the 
mouth  of  Beaver  creek.  On  the  east  side  of  the  valley  of  the 
Skagit  the  same  schist  outcrops  from  Thunder  creek  to  a point 
five  miles  up  Ruby  creek.  Russell*  also  mentions  schist  as  oc- 
curring under  the  lava  in  the  Snake  river  canyon  between  Grande 
Ronde  river  and  Wild  Goose  creek,  and  in  the  mountains  along 
the  western  base  of  which  runs  the  Washington-Idaho  line.  On 
the  Snake  river,  at  Buffalo  rock,  fifteen  miles  above  Asotin  an- 
other outcrop  of  schist  occurs. 

Other  considerable  areas  of  schist  have  been  observed  by  the 
writer,  usually  associated  with  gneiss.  Schist  occurs  commonly 
along  the  Methow  between  its  mouth  and  that  of  Twisp  river. 
Schist  with  gneiss  occurs  on  Bridge  creek  and  on  the  Stehekin 
between  Twisp  pass  and  the  head  of  Lake  Chelan.  It  occurs 

♦Russell:  Water  Supply  and  Irrigation  Papers,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  No.  4,  p.  36, 189  7 


2 — 1 


18  Annual  Report  Washington  Geological  Survey. 


occasionally  on  the  borders  of  Lake  Chelan  and  between  the 
mouth  of  Chelan  river  and  Wenatche.  Large  areas  of  schist 
occur  on  the  Skagit  from  near  Marblemount  to  Cokedale. 

Near  Hamilton  the  schist  contains  some  important  veins  of 
magnetic  iron.  West  of  Hamilton  and  about  Cokedale  are  two 
areas  where  schist  is  the  enclosing  rock  of  some  coal  basins  to 
be  described  later  on.  Upon  the  eastern  and  southern  boun- 
daries of  the  large  Blue  Canyon  coal  field  mica  schist  constitutes 
the  rim  rock.  Schist  is  found  in  isolated  outcrops  about 
La  Conner.  It  also  occurs  on  the  Great  Northern  Railway  near 
Madison,  and  for  a number  of  miles  from  Berne  to  the  eastward. 
Four  miles  east  of  Cheney  along  the  Northern  Pacific  Railway 
there  are  several  outcrops  of  mica  schist  where  the  overlying 
basalt,  thin  at  this  place,  has  been  wholly  removed. 

Crystalline  Limestone, 

In  the  metamorphic  area  above  described,  crystalline  lime- 
stone occurs  in  a large  number  of  localities.  Originally  a com- 
mon limestone,  it  has  become  crystalline  or  marbleized  through 
the  influence  of  heat  and  pressure  which  was  at  some  time 
exerted  upon  it.  From  an  economic  standpoint  the  best  crys- 
talline limestone,  as  far  as  now  known,  occurs  in  Stevens  county 
where  commercial  marble  is  found  at  several  places  and  is  ex- 
tensively quarried.  A long,  narrow  belt  of  limestone  extends 
north  and  south  across  Ferry  county,  lying  at  the  western  foot 
of  the  granite  divide  which  separates  the  Columbia  and  Kettle 
rivers  from  the  streams  to  the  westward.  Near  the  head  of 
Lambert  creek  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  town  of  Curlew  the 
limestone  forms  hills  which  show  quite  prominently  because  of 
their  white  color.  Crystalline  limestone  occurs  midway  between 
Republic  and  Wauconda.  It  also  occurs  near  Johnson  creek  on 
the  Okanogan  river  and  on  the  eastern  slope  of  Palmer  moun- 
tain. On  the  western  slope  of  the  Cascade  mountains  crystal- 
line limestone  occurs  at  many  places  from  Snoqualmie  Pass 
northward,  notably  near  the  Denny  iron  mines,  along  the  Stilla- 
guamish  river  near  Granite  Falls,  along  the  Skagit  river  between 
Baker  and  Marblemount,  and  near  Kendall  in  Whatcom  county. 
Important  areas  of  the  same  rock  occur  on  the  San  Juan  islands, 
where  the  limestone  is  intimately  associated  with  some  basic 
eruptive  rocks.  It  occurs  here  in  isolated  masses  varying  in 


Washington  Geological  Survey.  Annual  Report,  1901.  Plate  III. 


YAKIMA  CANYON,  BETWEEN  NORTH  YAKIMA  AND  ELLLENSBURG. 


An  Outline  of  the  Geology  of  Washington. 


19 


size  from  a few  feet  in  diameter  to  one-fourth  of  a mile  or  so. 
This  limestone  doubtless  belonged  to  some  sedimentary  beds 
from  which  fragments  were  torn  by  the  eruptive  rocks  in  their 
ascent  from  their  former  position  below  the  surface. 

Quartzite. 

Quartzite  is  a metamorphic  rock  which  has  been  derived 
from  sandstone  by  the  cementing  of  the  sand  grains  by  silica. 
It  is  practically,  therefore,  entirely  composed  of  silica,  and  is  of 
course  very  hard  and  resistant. 

In  a country  where  gneiss,  schist,  and  crystalline  limestone 
occur  it  would  be  very  exceptional  if  quartzite  did  not  occur 
also.  In  Washington,  however,  as  far  as  the  metamorphic  area 
has  been  studied,  quartzite  has  been  noted  in  only  a few  places. 
It  has  been  observed  by  the  writer  on  the  Similkameen  river,  a 
few  miles  directly  north  of  Loomis.  It  is  here  interstratified 
with  beds  of  gneiss.  Russell*  mentions  quartzite  as  occuring  at 
several  places  north  of  the  Snake  river  and  near  the  Idaho  line, 
where  islands  of  quartzite  appear  in  the  sea  of  lava.  Kamiack 
and  Steptoe  Buttes  in  Whitman  county  are  two  very  prominent 
examples  of  quartzite.  The  first  of  these  rises  over  500  feet, 
and  the  second  over  1,000  feet,  above  the  surface  of  the  sur- 
rounding basalt  plateau. 

IGNEOUS  ROCKS. 

The  igneous  or  heat  rocks  are  those  which  have  solidified 
from  a fused  condition.  An  igneous  rock  may  be  formed  by  the 
fusion  of  a sedimentary  rock,  or  it  may  represent  merely  the 
final  stage  in  metamorphism.  Two  kinds  of  igneous  rocks  may 
be  noted  — the  plutonic  and  the  volcanic.  The  plutonic  or  deep 
seated  rocks  are  those  which,  cooling  at  a distance  beneath  the 
surface  and  under  great  pressure,  solidify  slowly,  attaining  a 
coarse  granular  structure,  except  near  their  borders  where  they 
come  in  contact  with  the  cooler  rocks.  In  Washington  the  plu- 
tonic rocks  are  well  represented  by  granite,  syenite,  diorite,  etc., 
but  as  detailed  studies  have  not  been  made  in  regard  to  the  par- 
ticular areas  where  these  different  varieties  occur,  it  will  be  con- 
venient to  group  them  all  under  the  head  of  granite. 

Volcanic  rocks  are  those  which  are  brought  to  the  surface  or 

* Russell:  Water  Supply  and  Irrigation  Papers,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  No.  4,  pp.  37-38, 

1897. 


20 


Annual  Report  Washington  Geological  Survey. 


near  to  the  surface  by  volcanic  action  and  are  either  spread  out 
in  layers,  intruded  into  fissures  as  dikes,  or  accumulated  as  frag- 
ments of  lava.  On  account  of  their  sudden  cooling,  many  vol- 
canic rocks  are  glassy  or  only  partly  crystalline.  Others  are 
wholly  crystalline,  the  crystals  generally,  but  not  always,  being 
of  a small  size.  Examples  of  volcanic  rocks  are  to  be  found 
throughout  Washington,  notably  the  great  lava  plains  of  south- 
eastern Washington,  and  within  and  about  the  great  volcanoes 
of  the  Cascade  mountains. 

Granite* 

Granite  occurs  at  very  many  places  and  in  very  large  quan- 
tities in  Washington.  Throughout  the  metamorphic  area  of  the 
state  above  described  granite  is  perhaps  the  most  common  rock. 
It  is  the  belief  of  the  writer  that  further  study  will  make  it  clear 
that  there  are  in  the  state  two  kinds  of  granite  — one  represent- 
ing a final  stage  in  metamorphism,  or  in  other  words,  a meta- 
morphic granite  — the  other  variety  an  intrusive  granite  which 
was  forced  into  the  rocks  above  it.  It  is  possible  that  these 
varieties  are  both  shown  along  the  line  of  the  Great  Northern 
Railway  in  the  Cascade  mountains.  At  Index  a light  colored 
granite  occurs  composed  mainly  of  feldspar  and  quartz,  with 
comparatively  small  amounts  of  mica  and  hornblende.  Although 
the  writer  has  observed  this  granite  over  a considerable  area 
about  Index,  at  no  place  has  any  evidence  of  intrusion  been 
noted.  At  the  point  where  the  railway  crosses  the  mountain 
summit  there  is  another  large  area  of  granite,  composed  mainly 
of  mica  and  hornblende  with  a proportionally  small  amount  of 
quartz  and  feldspar.  This  granite  is  very  plainly  intrusive,  for 
it  shows  within  it  embedded  masses  of  mica  schist  which  it 
broke  off  in  its  ascent. 

Granite  occurs  about  Spokane  and  Medical  Lake,  where  im- 
portant quarries  have  been  developed.  In  Ferry  county  a long 
narrow  belt  of  granite  is  found  on  the  summit  of  the  divide 
between  the  streams  flowing  east  into  the  Kettle  and  Columbia 
rivers,  and  those  flowing  west  into  Curlew  creek  and  the  San 
Poil  river.  A similar  belt  running  north  and  south  is  crossed 
on  the  road  from  Republic  to  Wauconda. 

Mount{  Bonaparte,  in  Okanogan  county,  stands  at  the  center 
of  a large  granite  area.  It  is  probable  that  this  area  continues, 
southward  along  the  summit  between  the  streams  flowing  east- 


An  Outline  of  the  Geology  of  Washington. 


21 


ward  into  the  San  Poil  river  and  those  flowing  westward  to  join 
the  Okanogan.  There  is  a granite  area  of  unknown  width,  ex- 
tending southward  from  Loomis  byway  of  Conconully  and  Ruby 
to  the  Columbia  river.  The  central  portion  of  this  area  extends 
in  an  east  and  west  direction  virtually  from  the  Okanogan  river 
to  the  Methow,  making  it  one  of  the  largest  granite  areas  of  the 
state.  Near  Ruby  and  elsewhere  the  granite  contains  a pinkish 
feldspar,  which  gives  it  a beautiful  appearance.  Granite  occurs 
for  two  miles  east  and  about  eight  miles  west  of  Twisp  pass, 
and  it  is  not  improbable  that  this  granite  continues  northwest 
and  southeast  forming  the  divide  between  the  drainage  of  the 
Methow  and  Lake  Chelan.  Granite  occurs  along  the  whole 
course  of  Railroad  creek,  which  heads  on  the  summit  of  the  Cas- 
cades and  which  empties  into  Lake  Chelan  near  its  northern 
end. 

Russell*  gives  several  localities  in  the  Cascades  where  granite 
and  related  rocks  occur.  There  is  a very  large  area  of  granite 
around  Mount  Stewart,  known  as  the  Mount  Stewart  granite. 
All  of  the  high  peaks  of  the  Wenatche  mountains  are  composed 
of  this  rock,  and  an  area  of  granite  extends  from  a point  about 
five  miles  northwest  of  Blewett  to  beyond  the  summit  of  the 
Cascades  at  the  point  crossed  by  the  Great  Northern  Railway. 
Ingall  creek,  for  its  whole  length  to  within  four  miles  of  its  junc- 
tion with  the  Peshastin,  forms  a border  of  this  area.  Here  the 
boundary  turns  and  runs  nearly  due  north  to  seven  or  eight 
miles  beyond  Leavenworth,  where  it  again  turns  and  goes 
toward  the  west. 

The  drainage  basin  of  the  north  fork  of  White  creek  is  nearly 
all  in  granite,  and  this  area  probably  connects  with  that  of  Cas- 
cade pass.  Similar  granite  is  found  along  Indian  creek  and  on 
Glacier  peak.  Between  the  two  latter  localities  a part  of  the 
granite  branches  off  from  the  main  mass  and  in  the  form  of 
dikes  is  intruded  into  the  schists  to  the  south.  Granite  has  also 
been  noted  along  the  Sauk  river,  where  schistose  rocks  are  the 
prevailing  type.  Another  granite  area,  noted  by  both  Willisf 
and  RussellJ,  occurs  along  the  Skagit  river  from  Marblemount 
to  Thunder  creek. 


* Russell : 20th  Ann.  Rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  Part  II,  pp.  105-108, 1900. 
t Willis:  10th  Census  U.  S.,  Vol.  XV,  p.  761,  1886. 

+ Russell:  20th  Ann.  Rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  Part  II,  p.  107, 1900. 


22  Annual  Report  Washington  Geological  Survey. 


Little  is  known  of  the  granite  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
Cascades.  According  to  Smith*,  granite  forms  an  elevated  plat- 
form on  which  stands  the  volcanic  cone  of  Mount  Rainier. 
Granite  has  been  observed  by  the  writer  at  the  foot  of  Silver 
Star  mountain,  fifteen  miles  northeast  of  Washougal  on 
the  Columbia  river.  It  is  very  probable  that  granite  occurs 
at  intervals  along  the  axis  of  the  Cascade  mountains  from  the 
British  Columbia  line  to  a point  within  a few  miles  of  the  Co- 
lumbia river.  Mr.  Charles  A.  Ruddy  has  informed  the  writer 
that  a few  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Dosewallips  river  on 
Hood’s  Canal  large  boulders  of  granite  are  found,  which  have 
beyond  any  doubt  been  brought  from  the  Olympic  mountains 
adjoining. 

Basalt. 

The  most  important  volcanic  rock  of  the  state  is  represented 
by  the  series  of  basaltic  outflows  known  as  the  Columbia  lava.f 
The  Columbia  lava  not  only  extends  over  a good  portion  of 
Washington,  but  covers  all  of  Southern  Idaho,  Eastern  Oregon, 
and  extends  into  California  as  well.  It  is  doubtless  the  largest 
lava  flow  in  the  world,  covering  nearly  250,000  square  miles  and 
displaying  a thickness  in  some  places  in  excess  of  4,000  feet. 
Along  the  margin  of  the  basaltic  flow  the  lava  becomes  compara- 
tively thin,  as  is  shown  near  the  big  bend  of  the  Columbia  river, 
where  the  granite  beneath  the  lava  shows  in  canyons  at  depths 
of  300  or  400  feet.  It  is  generally  conceded  that  the  basalt  came 
to  the  surface  through  great  fissures  of  considerable  linear  ex- 
tent rather  than  through  the  usual  volcanic  vents.  In  other 
words  the  basalt  is  of  a composition  which  is  characterized  by  a 
low  melting  point,  and  consequently  the  molten  lava  would  flow 
for  long  distances  before  cooling.  Throughout  the  Columbia 
lava  plain  there  are  no  indications  of  true  volcanoes,  as  far  as 
observed. 

The  floor  upon  which  the  Columbia  lava  was  outpoured  was 
quite  uneven.  It  was  a floor  composed  as  far  as  known  of  gran- 
ite, schist,  gneiss,  and  other  metamorphic  rocks  not  dissimilar 
in  character,  perhaps,  from  the  Okanogan  highlands  which  lie 

♦Smith:  18th  Ann.  Rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  Part  II,  p.  423, 1898. 

tThis  formation  is  discussed  in  the  papers  by  Russell,  Smith,  LeConte,  Gibbs, 
Richthofen,  and  Symons,  which  are  mentioned  in  the  Bibliography  of  Washington 
Geology  at  the  close  of  this  volume. 


Washington  Geological  Survey  Annual  Report,  1901.  Plate  IV. 


Photograph  by  Dr.  U.  M.  Lauman.  MOUNT  ST.  HELENS  AND  SPIRIT  LAlvE. 


An  Outline  of  the  Geology  of  Washington. 


23 


to  the  north,  or  the  mountains  along  the  Idaho-Washington  line. 
Some  of  the  bolder  hills  of  the  former  floor  were  never  covered, 
as  in  the  case  of  Kamiack  and  Steptoe  Buttes  and  others.  Other 
hills,  although  finally  covered  by  lava,  are  yet  known  to  have 
reached  heights  of  2,500  feet  above  the  surrounding  valleys. 
Such  instances  are  to  be  seen  in  the  canyon  of  Snake  river. 

Wherever  the  rivers,  such  as  the  Snake,  have  cut  deeply  into 
the  basalt,  the  individual  lava  flows  may  be  readily  made  out. 
The  number  of  lava  flows  presumably  varies  in  different  parts  of 
the  lava  field.  According  to  Russell,*  in  the  canyon  of  Snake 
river,  where  perhaps  there  is  the  greatest  exposure  of  lava,  eight 
distinct  lava  sheets  may  be  seen.  Smith  f says  that  ten  or  more 
separate  flows  can  be  counted  in  the  canyon  of  Yakima  river, 
and  that  individual  flows  may  be  traced  for  great  distances. 
The  surface  of  the  basalt  in  some  places  is  yet  characterized  by 
the  ropy  appearance  which  is  always  observed  upon  recent  un- 
weathered lava  flows.  In  appearance  the  basalt  is  usually  black 
in  color,  but  various  tints  of  brown,  red,  gray,  and  green  may 
easily  be  found.  It  is  observed  that  the  lava  varies  somewhat 
in  character  in  the  successive  flows,  and  that  from  the  surface  of 
a flow  toward  the  center  some  differences  may  be  noted.  In' 
some  of  the  flows  the  basalt  is  very  compact  and  heavy,  while  in 
other  cases  it  presents  rough  and  scoriaceous  surfaces,  caused  by 
the  small  cellular  cavities  which  were  produced  by  the  steam 
when  the  rock  was  molten.  In  some  instances  where  the  molten 
rock  cooled  with  great  rapidity  the  minerals  did  not  have  time 
to  form  and  the  basalt  is  therefore  glassy,  but  in  the  central 
part  of  the  thicker  flows  where  cooling  took  place  with  great 
slowness  the  rock  is  crystalline  in  structure  and  the  crystals  can 
readily  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye.  The  composition  of  the  ba- 
salt from  a mineralogical  standpoint  is  that  of  plagioclase  feld- 
spar, augite,  olivine,  and  magnetite,  in  a glassy  ground  mass 
composed  of  silicates  of  alumina,  magnesia,  soda,  potash,  lime, 
iron,  etc.  According  to  Russell,  “chemical  analyses  of  basalt 
show  that  in  general  it  contains  from  46  to  47  per  cent,  of  silica 
and  from  n to  22  per  cent,  of  alumina,  together  with  lime,  mag- 
nesia, potash,  etc.,  in  proportions  varying  from  a small  fraction 
of  one  per  cent,  to  over  ten  per  cent.  It  is  the  presence  of 


♦Russell:  Water  Supply  and  Irrigation  Papers,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  No.  4,  p.  48. 1898. 
t Smith:  Water  Supply  and  Irrigation  Papers,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  No.  55,  p.  15, 1901. 


24  Annual  Report  Washington  Geological  Survey. 


lime,  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  in  basalt  that  gives  the  soils 
formed  from  its  decay  much  of  their  richness  for  agricultural 
purposes.” 

Everywhere  that  the  basalt  is  seen  in  a vertical  section  the 
columnar  structure  is  very  apparent.  By  the  columnar  structure 
is  meant  the  parting  of  the  lava  into  long  colonnades  or  prismatic 
columns.  These  columns  vary  greatly  in  thickness  and  height ; 
in  the  latter  dimension  they  often  reach  thirty  feet  or  more  and  in 
breadth  they  may  be  from  three  to  four  feet.  In  cross  section 
the  columns  are  usually  hexagonal,  although  sometimes  very 
irregular,  with  sides  ranging  in  number  from  three  to  eight.  As 
a rule  the  smaller  columns  are  more  perfect  than  the  larger  ones, 
and  it  is  also  noted  that  in  the  smaller  lava  flows  the  columns 
may  be  limited  to  the  central  portions  of  the  sheet.  A rock  such 
as  basalt  necessarily  shrinks  a great  deal  upon  cooling.  When 
the  shrinkage  is  quite  regular,  symmetrical  breaks  in  the  rocks 
are  found  which  are  known  as  joints.  It  is  because  of  the  great 
network  of  joints  which  extend  through  the  mass  of  rock  that 
origin  is  given  to  the  basaltic  columns. 

When  the  basalt  was  outpoured  in  the  form  of  fiery  inunda- 
tions, it  of  course  filled  the  valleys  first  of  all,  and  rose  by  suc- 
cessive additions  to  greater  and  greater  heights.  It  is  known 
that  in  some  cases  there  was  considerable  time  intervening  be- 
tween successive  flows,  for  extensive  layers  of  gravel  and  the 
charred  remnants  of  forest  growth  often  occur  between  the  lava 
beds. 

At  the  time  of  its  eruption  the  lava  must  have  assumed  a 
position  practically  flat  or  horizontal.  That  position  continues 
to  the  present  time  in  some  parts  of  the  lava  field.  In  other 
places,  however,  the  lava  beds  have  suffered  great  deformation 
in  the  way  of  faulting  and  folding,  and  we  now  find  these  beds 
tilted  at  various  angles.  The  Blue  mountains  represent  a mod- 
erate arching  of  the  lava  so  that  here  a broad  dome  has  been 
produced,  which  rises  four  or  five  thousand  feet  above  the  sur- 
rounding plain.  The  Badger  mountains,  located  in  the  great 
bend  of  the  Columbia,  probably  had  a similar  origin.  In  the 
western  portion  of  the  lava  field,  as  the  Cascade  mountains  are 
approached,  the  structure  of  the  lava  and  of  the  mountains  is 
closely  identical.  In  other  words  the  basalt  has  been  folded  into 
arches  and  troughs,  or  anticlines  and  synclines,  which  are  plainly 


An  Outline  of  the  Geology  of  Washington. 


25 


evident  to  anyone  passing  through  that  region.  The  larger 
streams,  such  as  the  Yakima,  have  held  tenaciously  to  their 
courses,  even  though  the  arches  of  lava  have  arisen  across  them 
and  deep  canyons,  such  as  the  striking  Yakima  canyon,  have 
been  produced. 

In  age  the  Columbia  lava  belongs  chiefly  to  the  Eocene 
Tertiary,  but  the  final  flows  did  not  cease  until  Miocene  Tertiary 
time. 

Andesite. 

Andesite  is  a volcanic  rock  composed  essentially  of  plagio- 
clase  feldspar  and  one  or  more  of  the  following  : hornblende, 
augite,  and  biotite.  It  resembles  basalt  in  some  respects,  but 
fuses  with  more  difficulty,  and  is  generally  of  a lighter  color.  It 
occurs  commonly  in  Washington,  both  as  intrusive  sheets,  or 
dikes,  and  as  extrusive  sheets  in  the  form  of  flows  from  vol- 
canoes. 

The  rocks  of  Mount  Rainier  have  been  studied  by  Smith,* 
who  reports  the  cone  as  being  composed  for  the  most  part  of 
flows  of  andesite,  with  occasional  layers  of  basalt.  Russell  f 
mentions  andesite  as  forming  the  summit  of  Glacier  peak,  and 
also  dikes  or  old  lava  flows  that  radiate  from  it  in  different  di- 
rections. 

Andesite  rocks  are  also  said  to  form  the  summit  of  Goat 
mountain J,  west  of  the  Clealum  river,  and  to  be  immediately 
associated  with  the  formations  in  the  region  drained  by  the  head- 
waters of  the  Yakima  river. 

Serpentine. 

Serpentine  is  not  an  unusual  rock  in  Washington,  especially 
in  the  central  and  northern  Cascades,  and  its  presence  has  been 
noted  by  several  observers.  In  composition  serpentine  closely 
resembles  talc,  both  being  hydrous  silicates  of  magnesium. 
Serpentine  is  generally  a soft  mineral  or  rock,  some  shade  of 
green  in  color,  usually  massive  in  form,  although  occasionally 
very  fibrous.  It  is  always  formed  by  the  metamorphism  of 
some  other  rock,  and  hence  is  secondary.  The  peridotites, 
rocks  composed  essentially  of  olivine  and  pyroxene,  are  partic- 
ularly liable  to  alteration  whereby  serpentines  are  the  result. 


* Smith:  18th  Ann.  Rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  Part  II,  p.  416-23, 1898. 
t Russell:  20th  Ann.  Rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  Part  II,  p.  134, 1900. 

X Willis  and  Smith:  Clealum  Iron  Ores,  Trans.  Am.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  February,  1900 


26  Annual  Report  Washington  Geological  Survey. 

The  best  known  serpentine  area  in  the  state  is  that  which 
encircles  the  Mt.  Stuart  granite  and  which  has  been  described 
by  Russell*.  Here  the  serpentine  occurs  at  many  places,  not- 
ably on  the  headwaters  of  the  south  fork  of  Icicle  creek,  on  For- 
tune creek,  middle  and  north  forks  of  the  Teanaway  river,  south 
of  Ingall  creek,  throughout  the  drainage  basin  of  Nigger  creek, 
on  the  ridges  to  the  east  of  Fish  lake  and  the  upper  waters  of 
the  Clealum  river,  and  in  the  region  around  Blewett.  In  all  of 
these  cases  the  serpentine  seems  to  have  been  derived  from  per- 
idotite,  and  the  degree  of  alteration  varies  in  different  portions 
of  the  field.  Mineral  veins  are  a common  accompaniment  of 
the  serpentine,  and  in  the  region  about  Blewett,  Fish  lake,  and 
other  localities  within  the  serpentine  belt,  valuable  ores  of  cop- 
per, silver,  and  gold  are  found. 

In  Stevens  county  several  areas  of  serpentine  have  been  dis- 
covered, the  best  known  probably  being  the  one  at  Valley,  on  the 
Spokane  Falls  and  Northern  Railway.  The  serpentine  here  is  a 
valuable  ornamental  stone,  and  the  quarrying  of  it  has  become 
an  important  industry.  It  has  a pleasing  color,  may  be  obtained 
in  large  masses,  and  possesses  other  desirable  qualities. 

SEDIMENTARY  ROCKS. 

Sedimentary  or  stratified  rocks  are  those  which  are  made 
from  the  sediments  or  fragments  derived  from  older  rocks. 
These  fragments  may  be  produced  along  the  sea  shore  by  the 
work  of  the  waves,  or  they  may  be  produced  upon  the  land  by 
the  forces  of  air  and  water.  Sediments  are  transported  usually 
by  water  and  deposited  upon  the  ocean  floor,  in  estuaries,  or  in 
lakes.  Thus  we  have  rocks  of  marine,  brackish  water,  and  fresh 
water  origin.  Rocks  are  also  divided  according  to  composition 
or  the  kind  of  sediment  which  has  entered  into  them,  so  that  we 
have  limestones,  clay  rocks,  sandstones,  etc.  Another  classifi- 
cation that  may  be  made  of  sedimentary  rocks  is  one  according 
to  the  geological  age  in  which  they  were  made. 

The  sedimentary  rocks  of  Washington  cover  a large  portion 
of  the  state  and  are  of  great  importance.  At  the  present  stage 
of  knowledge  concerning  Washington  geology  the  sedimentary 
rocks  are  better  known  than  are  the  other  divisions.  From  their 
irregular  line  of  contact  with  the  metamorphic  and  volcanic 


♦Russell:  20th  Ann.  Rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  Fart  II,  page  109,  et  seq.,  1900. 


Washington  Geological  Survey  Annual  Report,  1901.  Plate  V. 


LAKE  OF  THE  MOUNTAINS,  NEAR  CASCADE  PASS,  CASCADE  MOUNTAINS. 


An  Outline  of  the  Geology  of  Washington. 


27 


rocks  on  the  western  flank  of  the  Cascades,  the  sedimentary 
rocks  extend  continuously  to  the  coast  with  the  exception  of  the 
higher  central  portion  of  the  Olympics.  In  the  northern  Cas- 
cades and  over  the  Okanogan  highlands,  sedimentary  forma- 
tions occur  at  many  places,  usually  in  comparatively  small 
isolated  areas.  They  represent  of  course  the  remnants  of 
previous  areas  of  larger  size  which  in  the  course  of  time  have 
been  greatly  reduced  by  erosion.  Many  of  the  areas  now  sep- 
arated were  at  one  time  connected.  These  isolated  areas  are 
often  found  where  least  expected,  and  so  small  are  they  that  a 
great  amount  of  detailed  work  will  be  necessary  before  they  are 
all  made  known.  On  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Cascades  in  the 
central  part  of  the  range  there  are  some  fields  of  sedimentary 
rocks  of  considerable  extent.  Some  outlying  areas,  discon- 
nected by  erosion,  reach  down  to  the  Columbia  river  and  a little 
way  beyond.  The  only  part  of  Washington  which  seems  to  be 
quite  free  from  sedimentary  rocks  is  that  part  of  the  state  which 
lies  to  the  eastward  of  the  Columbia  river  and  to  the  southward 
of  the  Columbia  and  Spokane  rivers.  In  the  following  discus- 
sion the  different  formations  will  be  taken  up  in  the  order  of 
their  supposed  geological  position,  or  geological  age,  beginning 
with  the  oldest. 

PRE-CRETACEOUS  PERIOD. 

A limestone  which  bears  fossils  that  are  supposed  to  be  the 
remains  of  crinoid  stems  lies  beneath  the  iron-bearing  schists 
along  Skagit  river.  Upon  evidence  offered  by  these  fossils, 
Willis*  ventures  the  opinion  that  the  limestones  are  of  Carboni- 
ferous age.  If  so,  they  are  the  oldest  rocks  so  far  identified  in 
the  state.  In  this  same  article  Willis  mentions  black  slates, 
conglomerates,  and  limestones  from  the  Monte  Cristo  district 
which  he  thinks  may  be  of  Mesozoic  age. 

Russellf  describes  a series  of  sandstones,  shales  and  con- 
glomerates, of  a distinct  reddish-brown  color  which  outcrop  in 
the  mountains  bordering  Methow  river  near  the  old  mining  camp 
of  Ventura.  He  calls  the  series  the  Ventura  formation,  and  sug- 
gests that  it  may  be  of  Pre-Cretaceous  age.  Pie  bases  his  cor- 
relation on  the  stratigraphic  relationship  of  this  formation  with 
the  two  Cretaceous  formations  that  adjoin  it — the  Similkameen 


♦Willis:  17th  Ann.  Rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  Part  I,  p.  55,  1896. 

+ Russell:  20th  Ann.  Rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  Part  II,  p.  193, 1900. 


28 


Annual  Report  Washington  Geological  Survey. 


sandstone  on  the  north  and  west,  and  the  Winthrop  sandstone 
on  the  east. 

CRETACEOUS  PERIOD. 

As  far  as  known,  the  Cretaceous  age  is  but  little  represented 
among  the  sedimentary  rocks  of  the  state.  The  oldest  and 
probably  the  best  known  locality  is  that  of  Sucia  Island  and  a 
few  other  small  adjoining  islands  of  the  San  Juan  group,  lying 
between  the  island  of  Vancouver  and  the  mainland.  These 
rocks  have  been  designated  the  Vancouver  formation  because  of 
their  splendid  development  upon  the  large  island  of  that  name. 
Sucia  Island  has  yielded  about  fifty  species  that  are  common  to 
the  Chico  group  of  California,  which  is  of  upper  Cretaceous 
origin. 

Another  locality,  widely  separated  from  this,  is  on  the  Sno- 
qualmie  river  about  three  miles  below  Snoqualmie  Falls,  where 
from  an  outcrop  of  rocks  characteristic  marine  fossils  have  been 
obtained.* 

A third  area  yet  further  separated  from  the  other  two,  located 
upon  the  headwaters  of  the  Similkameen  and  Methow  rivers,  is 
described  by  Russell. f The  Similkameen  formation  consists 
chiefly  of  sandstone,  shale,  and  limestone  with  smaller  quantities 
of  conglomerate,  quartzite,  and  breccia,  the  whole  forming  a 
series  which  is  4,000  or  5,000  feet  thick.  The  mollusks  obtained 
from  the  limestone,  and  the  well-preserved  ferns  found  in  the 
blue  sandstone  at  the  base  of  Gold  Ridge,  establish  the  Cretace- 
ous age  of  this  formation. 

To  the  southeastward  of  the  area  just  described,  on  the  Met- 
how river  near  Winthrop  there  is  to  be  found  a series  of  coarse 
sandstones  and  light  grey  sandy  shales  having  a thickness  of 
about  2,000  feet.  From  the  abundant  plant  remains  found  in  the 
shaly  layers  the  Cretaceous  age  was  deary  established.  This 
group  of  rocks  has  been  termed  by  Russell  the  Winthrop  sand- 
stone. 

TERTIARY  PERIOD. 

The  Tertiary  rocks  have  been  studied  for  a number  of  years, 
and  beyond  a doubt  are  the  best  known  rocks  of  the  state.  They 
are  of  great  economic  importance  because  they  contain  within 
them  large  deposits  of  coal  and  valuable  ledges  of  building  stone. 


* Kimball:  Am.  Geol.,  Vol.  XIX,  p.  305,  1897. 

t Russell:  20th  Ann.  Rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  Part  II,  p.  114,  et  seq.,  1900. 


An  Outline  of  the  Geology  of  Washington. 


29 


As  was  the  case  in  other  parts  of  the  United  States,  Tertiary 
time  in  Washington  was  characterized  by  the  presence  of  many 
lakes,  in  which  sediments  of  great  thickness  were  deposited.  In 
the  early  part  of  Tertiary  time,  or  during  the  Eocene  epoch,  vege- 
tation grew  with  great  luxuriance  about  the  lake  shores,  and  upon 
the  lake  floors  vegetal  matter  was  deposited  in  thick  beds  be- 
tween the  layers  of  sand  and  clay.  After  an  average  accumulation 
in  these  lakes  of  several  thousand  feet  of  mechanical  sediments 
and  vegetal  matter,  the  strata  were  elevated,  folded,  and  some- 
times faulted,  the  vegetal  accumulations  were  compressed  and 
metamorphosed  and  converted  into  coal  seams.  The  lakes  above 
mentioned  were  located  along  the  eastern  and  western  borders  of 
the  Cascade  mountains,  and  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the  state, 
in  what  is  now  Okanogan,  Ferry  and  Stevens  counties.  They 
had  their  best  development  west  of  the  Cascades,  along  the  east- 
ern side  of  the  present  Puget  Sound  basin,  but  in  this  region  the 
Tertiary  sedimentary  rocks  have  been  largely  covered  by  lava 
flows  from  the  mountains  nearby,  and  by  the  sediments  from  the 
great  glaciers  which  later  passed  over  them. 

A little  way  to  the  westward  of  the  chain  of  lakes  just  de- 
scribed was  the  sea  coast  of  that  time  which  was  somewhat  par- 
allel to  the  present  ocean  border.  Upon  the  floor  of  the  shallow 
ocean  sediments  accumulated,  consisting  mostly  of  clay,  sand, 
and  gravel,  with  thin  layers  of  limestone.  The  marine  deposits 
were  made  almost  wholly  in  middle  and  later  Tertiary;  or  in  the 
Miocene  and  Pliocene  epochs.  As  far  as  known  there  is  no  un- 
conformity in  the  Tertiary  period  between  any  epoch  and  the 
one  following.  The  Eocene  rocks  have  received  more  study  than 
those  of  the  Miocene  and  Pliocene  epochs  because  of  their  eco- 
nomic importance.  The  rocks  of  the  latter  epochs  lie  in  the 
southwestern  part  of  the  state  and  have  received  practically  no 
attention  from  geologists. 

Eocene  Epoch. 

The  Eocene  rocks  of  Washington  are  nearly  all  coal-bearing 
and  so  a reference  to  the  map  of  the  coal  fields,  herein,  will 
give  one  an  idea  of  the  approximate  extent  of  the  rocks  of  this 
period.  In  some  instances  the  areas  are  very  small  and  the 
thickness  of  the  rocks  not  very  great.  In  other  cases,  as  in  the 
Blue  Canyon  coal  field,  an  area  of  more  than  360  square  miles  is 
represented  and  the  rocks  ar^not  less  than  10,000  feet  in  thick- 


30  Annual  Report  Washington  Geological  Survey. 


ness.  The  geological  characteristics  of  each  Eocene  area  is 
described  in  more  detail  in  the  article  on  the  coal  fields  of  Wash- 
ington, which  is  a part  of  this  volume. 

During  the  field  season  of  1901  the  writer  collected  from  a 
few  new  localities  some  plant  remains  which  were  submitted  for 
examination  to  Professor  F.  H.  Knowlton  of  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey,  and  his  report  is  here  given: 

Preliminary  Report  on  Fossil  Plants  from  the  State  of 
Washington,  Collected  by  Henry  Landes,  1901. 

By  F.  H.  Knowlton. 

This  material  consists  of  seven  small  lots  of  specimens,  from  as 
many  separate  localities,  all,  with  a single  exception,  being  in  the  north- 
western part  of  the  state.  The  species  afforded  by  the  various  localities 
are  as  follows: 

Day  creek,  near  Hamilton,  Skagit  county,  Wash.: 

Quercus  banksicefolia  Newberry. 

Quercus  sp. 

Coal  creek,  near  Hamilton,  Skagit  county,  Wash.: 

Quercus  banksicefolia  Newberry. 

Quercus  coriacea  Newberry. 

Thuja  interrupta  Newberry. 

Glyptostrobus  Europceus  ( Brongn.)  Heer. 

Cokedale,  Skagit  county,  Wash.: 

Quercus  banksicefolia  Newberry. 

Nyssa  ? cuneata  ? Newberry. 

Cinnamomum  n.  sp.? 

These  three  localities,  being  evidently  of  the  same  horizon,  are  best 
considered  together.  The  most  abundant  and  unmistakable  species  is 
Quercus  banksicefolia  of  Newberry.  It  occurs  at  all  the  localities  and  is 
a very  beautiful  species.  It  was  originally  described  by  Newberry,* 
from  Chuckanut,  near  Bellingham  bay,  and  so  far  as  I now  know  has 
been  found  but  once  since,  namely,  by  myself  at  the  coal  mines  at  Blue 
Canyon  on  the  east  side  of  Lake  Whatcom.  The  history  of  Quercus 
coriacea  and  Nyssa  ? cuneata  is  the  same,  and  the  conifer  identified  as 
Glyptostrobus  Europceus  was  found  at  the  same  place. 

Thuja  interrupta  was  described  originally  from  the  Fort  Union 
group  near  old  Fort  Union,  North  Dakota.  I found  it  also  on  Blue  Can- 
yon, and  it  is  present  in  the  material  from  Coal  creek. 

The  locality  at  Chuckanut  was  referred  by  Newberry  to  the  Creta- 
ceous, and  this  was  nearly  fifty  years  ago  when  much  less  was  known  of 
the  geology  of  this  region  than  now,  and  I do  not  think  it  should  be  so 


*Bost.  Jour.  Nat.  Hist.,  Vol.  VII,  p.  522,  1863;  Extinct  Floras  of  North  America, 
p.  69,  pi.  xviii,  figs.  2-5, 1898. 


An  Outline  of  the  Geology  of  Washington. 


31 


regarded.  From  the  general  appearance  of  the  plants  alone  I should  in- 
cline to  place  the  age  as  somewhere  near  the  Middle  Tertiary,  certainly 
younger  than  beds  at  Carbonado,  etc.  In  any  case  these  three  locali- 
ties represent  an  age  similar  to  that  of  the  beds  at  Blue  Canyon. 

Coal  Creek,  near  Keese,  Whatcom  county.  Wash,: 

Sequoia  Langsdorjii  (Brongn.)  Heer. 

Sabal  similar  to  Sabal  n.  sp.,  from  Liberty,  Wash. 

Cinnamomum  n.  sp.  of  vein  xil,  Franklin,  Wash. 

Cinnamomum  sp. 

Pipu  n.  sp. 

Phy llites  n.  sp.  of  vein  xil,  Franklin,  Wash. 

Populus  n.  sp.  of  vein  xil,  Franklin,  Wash. 

This  collection  contains  beautifully  preserved  and  very  interesting 
material,  some  of  which  is  undoubtedly  new,  and  much  of  which  is  iden- 
tical with,  or  similar  to,  forms  from  vein  XII  at  Franklin,  Wash.  On 
this  ground  I should  regard  the  age  as  similar  to  that  at  Franklin.  I 
have  not  given  the  names  of  the  new  species  in  advance  of  their  publi- 
cation in  my  proposed  monograph. 

Skykomish,  Snohomish  county,  Wash.: 

Anemia  n.  sp.,  as  found  at  Carbonado. 

Glyptostrobus  sp.,  as  found  at  Roslyn. 

Ficus  n.  sp.,  as  found  at  Carbonado. 

Ficus  n.  sp.,  as  found  at  Liberty. 

Celastrus  n.  sp.,  as  found  at  Carbonado. 

The  age  of  this  locality  would  seem  to  be  the  same  as  that  at  Car- 
bonado and  Roslyn,  the  beds  at  Liberty  being  a little  lower.  In  any 
case  it  is  probably  not  greatly  different  from  the  age  at  Carbonado. 

Black  River  Junction,  King  county,  Wash.: 

Acer  n.  sp. 

Cinnamomum  n.  sp. 

Ficus  ? n.  sp. 

This  material  is  the  same  as  that  obtained  at  Steel’s  Crossing  and, 
judging  from  the  matrix  as  well  as  the  plant  impressions,  came  from  the 
identical  beds.  There  is  no  evidence  tending  to  change  my  opinions  on 
the  age. 

Republic,  Ferry  county,  Wash.: 

Thuja  interrupta  Newberry. 

Sequoia  Langsdorjii  ? (Brongn.)  Heer. 

Cinnamomum  sp. 

There  is  too  little  of  this  material  to  base  a very  definite  conclusion 
on,  but  it  would  seem  to  be  similar  or  identical  with  the  beds  in  Skagit 
county. 

Miocene  Epoch. 

Marine  Miocene  strata  which  have  been  correlated  with  the 
Astoria  beds,  outcrop  along  the  shore  from  Port  Blakely  to 


32 


Annual  Report  Washington  Geological  Survey. 


Pleasant  Beach,  on  Puget  Sound.  The  formation  at  this  local- 
ity consists  of  several  thousand  feet  of  sandstone,  shale,  and 
conglomerate,  all  tilted  at  a high  angle.  Dali* * * §  mentions  rocks 
of  this  age  as  occurring  at  Shoalwater  Bay  (Willapa  Harbor), 
Bruceport,  and  Bellingham  Bay.  Willisf  mentions  a fresh  water 
formation  in  the  southeastern  portion  of  the  New  Castle  hills 
which  he  correlates  with  the  Miocene. 

The  Ellensburg  sandstone,  as  described  by  RussellJ,  is  the 
largest  fresh  water  deposit  of  known  Miocene  age  yet  discovered 
in  Washington.  The  formation  is  well  exposed  along  the  Yakima 
river  between  Dudley  and  Ellensburg,  and  consists  of  strata  of 
sandstone,  volcanic  dust,  and  conglomerates,  both  consolidated 
and  unconsolidated.  This  formation  lies  immediately  above  the 
Columbia  basalt,  and  reaches  a thickness  of  about  1,500  feet  in 
the  North  Yakima  area.  § The  Ellensburg  formation  was  de- 
posited in  a large  lake  which  covered  much  of  central  Washing- 
ton, the  exact  boundaries  of  the  lake  being  as  yet  unknown. 
The  lacustrine  sediments,  being  as  a rule  quite  incoherent,  have 
been  largely  removed  by  erosion. 

Pliocene  Epoch. 

It  is  not  improbable  that  future  study  will  disclose  rocks  of 
this  age  among  the  sedimentary  formations  which  make  up  the 
southwestern  part  of  the  state.  Dall||  mentions  the  occurrence 
of  a “ mytilus  bed”  at  Bruceport  which  he  thinks  is  of  Pliocene 
age. 

QUATERNARY  PERIOD. 

Pleistocene  Epoch. 

Marine  Pleistocene  deposits  within  the  state  are  confined 
chiefly  to  raised  beaches.  Dall^f  writes  of  the  occurrence  of 
beds  30  to  40  feet  thick  which  lie  uncomformably  upon  the  Plio- 
cene at  Bruceport.  Raised  beaches  of  Pleistocene  age  occur 
at  Alki  and  Restoration  Points  and  elsewhere  about  Puget  Sound 
wherever  the  beach  is  made  up  of  bed  rock.  Pleistocene  sedi- 
ments in  the  nature  of  glacial  deposits  occupy  a large  portion  of 

* Dali:  Bull.  84  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  p.  228,  1892. 

t Willis:  18th  Ann.  Rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  Part  III,  p.  414,  1898. 

t Russell:  20th  Ann.  Rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  Part  II,  p.  127,  1900. 

§ Smith:  Water  Supply  and  Irrigation  Papers,  No.  55,  p.  17,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  1901. 

n Dell:  Bull.  84,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  p.  228, 1892. 

1 Dali:  Bull.  84,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  p.  227,  1892. 


An  Outline  of  the  Geology  of  Washington. 


33 


the  state.  In  all  of  the  mountain  districts,  except  in  the  Blue 
mountains,  glaciers  once  covered  the  mountain  tops  and  filled 
the  valleys,  and  the  latter  are  now  partially  occupied  by  terraces, 
boulders,  and  moraines.  The  region  about  Puget  Sound  was 
occupied  by  great  ice  masses  which  came  from  British  Columbia, 
the  Cascades,  and  the  Olympics.  The  sediments  left  by  these 
glaciers  consist  of  till,  with  stratified  sand,  clay,  and  gravel,  in 
all  averaging  in  thickness  not  less  than  five  hundred  feet. 


V 


INDKX. 


PAGE. 

Andesite 25 

Basalt 22 

Blue  Mountains 14 

Board  of  Geological  Survey  — 

Creation  of,  by  law 2 

Organization  of 3,  4 

Cascade  Mountains 12 

Columbia  Plain 13 

Cretaceous  Period 28 

Crystalline  Limestone 18 

Dali,  Wm.  H.,  references  to  reports  by 32 

Eocene  Epoch 29 

Field  work  of  1901 4 

Geological  Survey  of  Washington  — 

Appropriation  for  support  of 3 

Board  of 2,  3,  4 

Expenses  of 7 

Law  establishing 2 

Objects  of 2 

Reports  of 3 

Staff  of 4 

Gneiss 16 

Granite 20 

Identification  of  Minerals  and  Rocks 6 

Igneous  Rocks 19 

Kimball,  J.  P.,  reference  to  report  of 28 

Knowlton,  Prof.,  report  of 30 

Law  establishing  Washington  Geological  Survey 2 

Lyon,  D.  A.,  field  work  of,  in  1901 5 

Metamorphic  Rocks 15 

Miocene  Epoch 31 

Newberry,  J.  S.,  reference  to  report  by 30 

Okanogan  Highlands ■. 13 

Olympic  Mountains 10 

Pleistocene  Epoch 32 

Pliocene  Epoch 32 

Pre-Cretaceous  Period 27 

Puget  Sound  Basin . 11 

Quartzite 19 

Quaternary  Period 32 


Russell,  I.  C.,  references  to  reports  by 

Schist 

Sedimentary  Rocks 

Serpentine 

Shedd,  Solon,  field  work  of,  in  1901 

Smith,  George  Otis,  references  to  reports  by 

Staff  of  Washington  Geological  Survey 

State  Geologist  — 

Field  work  of,  in  1901 

Office  work  of 

Tertiary  Period 

Thyng,  W.  S.,  field  work  of,  in  1901 

Topography  of  Washington 

Willis,  Bailey,  references  to  reports  by 


